in this posting I want to share you about the definition of preposition, you can find many kinds of preposition by reading
the posting below. it will help you in accomplishing your task especially on English Grammatical rules. Have a nice reading.
1.
The
definition of preposition
In
English some verbs are associated with certain prepositions. The preposition
and its object may follow the verb directly or may be separated from it by an
adverbial modifier or by the object of the verb.[1]
Preposition
is a word that is used before noun to explain the place (position) the things.
2.
Kinds
of preposition
1.
Above
(below), over (under)
a. Above
and below are typically used in paper to refer to the location of sentences,
paragraph, figuresand tables; above and below are also used when referring to
levels, list, averages and hierarchies.
e.g.: As mentioned
above there are three main methods, which are summarized in the table below.
Pisa is 50 m above sea
level which is below the national average for Italian cities.
b. Over
has a similiar meaning to cover, i.e. there is often physical contact between
two elements.
e.g.: A sheet was
placed over the patient’s body.
c. Over
and under also have a similiar meaning to more than and less than,
respectively.
e.g.: Only children over the age of 13
were considered in the sample.
Those under 12 years of age will be the
subject of a future investigation
d. Under
also means “in comfortable with”
e.g.:Under the new
regulation, all such documents have to be field under ‘funds’.
e. Note
the differenc between above all (i.e. the most important thing) and over all (i.e.
globally)
e.g.:Many points need
to be considered, above all age and sex.
Overall, our results
can be considered as an inportant step towards finding a cure for this endemic
disease.
2.
Across,
through
a. Across
indicates the joining of two points on a plane
e.g.:They swam across
the river.
They walked across the
road.
b. Through
indicates a transversal motion with some kind of penetration.
e.g.:The train went
through the tunnel.
The
sample was filtered through a very fine mesh.
c. Across
also mean ‘not restricted to one particular area’
e.g:Our method can be
applied across disciplines.
d. Through
can also be used to mean by means of
e.g.:We learnt this
through lengthy research.
3.
Already,
still, yet
a. Alredy
at some time in the past. Do not confuse already with just. Just mean something
that happened very recently (possibly a few seconds ago), e.g. we have just
arrived at the airport.
e.g.:This procedure has
already been explained elsewhere.
b. Yet
is frequently found in the affirmative and negative forms and refers to a
period that started in the past and progresses up to (and possibly beyond) the
present moment.
e.g.:Your paper has not
been reviewed yet, and is scheduled for review on 2 June.
c. Still
has the same meaning as yet, but is stronger. It indicates that a situation has
not changed and may suggest surprise or concern.
e.g.:we still have not
heard from the referees. I am worried that they never received the paper,
though I suppose they are still in time to contact us.
d. Already,
yet, and still can also be used with the past perfect to put two past events in
relation.
e.g.:We had already
seen har presentation before so we did not want to go again.
When we got the
conference room, the presenter had not arrived yet.
Twenty minutes later,
the presenter had still not arrived.
4.
Among,
between, from, of (differentiation and selection)
a. Between
when talking about a well-defined or well-separated number of items. It is
found with verbs such as decide,
differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, mediate and synchronize, and noun
such as agreement, comparison,
difference, distinction, interaction and relationship. This is because such
verbs and nouns indicate that a known number of items are involved.
e.g.:We found no
interaction in the classroom between teacher and students.
b. Among
when the group of items is not easily separable or te number is not kown or is
not important.
e.g.:The money was
divided up among the participants.
c. From
with verbs such as choose, pick, select, and
adjective such as different.
e.g.:Candidates will be
choosen from diverse discipliness and then selected from a shortlist of 10.
d. Of
is found at the beginning of a sentence when introducing a particular element
that is part of a group.
e.g.:Of the three
candidates we interviewed, the last was certainly the best.
e. Of
is used when choosing fron a number
e.g.:A comparison of
the three figures reveals that.....
5.
At,
in, to (location, state, change)
a. At
before buildings and work place, in before towns, countries etc. In both cases
no movement is involved.
e.g.:They arrived at
the airport, while we were still at work and Pete was at the restaurant
They arrived in New
York, while we were still in China.
b. To
after the verb taht indicates a destination.
e.g.:They have gone to
Beirut for a conference.
c. At
when describing the location of items in diagrams and figures, in before
figures, tables etc. When used in association with verbs such as see, show,
highlight.
e.g.:This can be seen
at the top / bottom / side / edge of the figure.
As can be seen in
Figure 1, the trend is...
Also, as highlighted in
Table 3...
d. To
to indicate movement, change, conformance, limits and consequence: adhere, adjust, attach, attract, bind,
bring, come, confine, conform, connect,consign, convey, delivere, direct,
email, fax, go, lead, link, move, react reply, respond, restrict, send, stick,
supply, switch, take, tend, tie, transmit, write, yield. This rule also
applies to the related nouns: delivery, modification, response, tendency etc.
e.g.:This was then
moved to the top / bottom of the list.
e. In
is used before certain states e.g. equilibrium, parallel, series.
e.g.:The devices are
placed in parallel ans operate in a steady-state manner
f. To is also used after certain adjectives that
indicate position: adjacent, close,
contingent, continguous, external, internal, next, orthogonal, parallel,
perpendicular, tangent, transverse.
e.g.:The lines are
parallelto each other.
6.
At,
in and on (time)
a. At
with a time of a day, and with specific periods (the weekend, Easter,
Christmas).
e.g.:The meeting is
scheduled to start at 15.30.
We usually take our
holidays at Easter or at Christmas, and
of course at the weekend.
b. In
with a period of time (week, month,
year, decade, century etc), including historical periods (in the Middle Age, in
the Renaissance etc), and with meantime /
meanwhile
e.g.:The conference
will be held in June
The last conference on
this topic was held in 2012 and the previous one in the 1990s. The first was
held in the 18th century.
c. On
with a day. Note some native speakers say on the weekend others at the weekend.
e.g.:I wiil contact you
on Monday morning.
We do not work on
Christmas Day, on Easter day and on July 4 (Independence Day.)
7.
At,
to (measurement, quality)
a. At
with the following nouns that indicate quantity and measurement, e.g. degree, interval, level, node, point,
pressure, ration, speed, stage, temperature, velocity.
e.g.:Water boils at a
temperature of 100 C
The vehicle moves at a
velocity of 300 cm / h
b. To
wiyh the other types of calculations and measurements, e.g. with the following
verbs: approximate, calculate, correct,
heat, measure, raise.
e.g.:Heat the water to
a temperature of 50 C
The potassium content
was approximated to 90 mEq / kg
c. With
certain adjectives to indicates a quality, conformance or similarity: inferior, superior, equal, identical,
proportional, similar, immune, impermeable, open, resistent, sensitive,
according, alternative, analogous, attention, common, comparable, conformance,
compliance, correspondence, entitlement, identical, inferior, likened, open,
oppesed, proportional, relative, relevant, responsive, similar, suited,
superior, transparent.
e.g.:Gender is common
to all Latinate languages, but has no adherence to logical rules.
8.
Before,
after, beforehand, afterwards, first (time sequences)
a. Before
and after must precede either a noun / pronoun, a gerund, or an entire
subordinate phrase.
e.g.:Where are you
going after the congress?
Before checking the
levels, the presence of any metals should be detected.
Preparetions should be
made before the mixture becomes solid.
b. Before and after cannot be used as
conjunctions or adverbs. Instead use beforehand, and afterwards.
e.g.:We are going for a
drink and afterwards back to the hotel.
The solution consists
in detecting the presence of metals beforehand and then / subsequently checking
the levels.
Preparation should be
made beforehand.
c. First
mean ‘before anything else’, it is often followed by second(ly) or then. It is
thus used to list a sequence of actions.
e.g.:First we are going
for drink, then afterwards back to the hotel.
First(ly) we detect the
metals, secondly we check the metals, and finally we...
First the preparation
should be made, then the mixture should be allowed to become soild.
9.
Beside,
next to, near (to), close to (location)
a. Beside
and next to have the same meaning and indicate elements that are touching.
e.g.:I sat beside /
next to her at the conference.
b. Near
(to) and close (to) have the same meaning and indicate elements that are at
some distance to each other.
e.g.:Our hotel were
quite near to / close to each other, but on opposite sides of the river.
c. Nearby
/ close by replace near and close at the end of the phrase.
e.g.:There was a train
station nearby / close by.
10.
By
and from (cause, means, and origin)
a. By
when the agent of an action is mentioned.
e.g.:Our paper has now
been revised by a netive English speaker.
Taxes were raised by
the government.
b. From
when the origin is mentioned. Verbs typically followed by from are: arise, bemefit, borrow, deduce, defend,
deviate, differ, ensue, exclude, originate, profit, protect, release, remove,
select, separate, shield, subtract, suffer,. Likewise, some of the nouns
that derive from these verbs are also found with from: deviation, exclusion, protection.
e.g.:The economic
crisis arose from banking malpractices and indiscriminate consumer-borrowing
from banks.
The quickly learned
English from their native-speaking colleagues.
c. By
when the method or means is given.
e.g.:They learned
English by watching videos on YouTube
we went by train
instead of going by car or by plane.
d. From
is often found with to, to indicate the move from one place to another.
e.g.:While on the train
from Malmo to Stockholm, they kept switching from one language to another.
11.
By,
in of (variations)
When talking about
increases, decreases, modifications, changes, variations, etc., use:
a. By
after a verb.
e.g.:the stock market
has risen by 213 points
b. In
with a noun.
e.g.:There has been an increase
in inflation
c. Of
with a number.
e.g.: There has been an
increase in inflation of 5%
12.
By
and within (time)
a. By
with an end date.
e.g.:we must received
your manuscript by January 21 or at the latest by the end of the month.
b. Within
for a period.
e.g.:Manuscripts will
be reviewed within six weeks of receipt.
13.
By now,
for now, for the moment, until now, so far
a. By
now means ‘given everything that has happened before’. For now and for the
moment both mean ‘from this point in time until some time in the future when a
change is expected’. For now and for the moment are generally followed either
by the present simple or will.
e.g.:The literature on
this topic should, by now, be extremely familiar to ...
we shall expand more
fully in this in Sect. 3. For now, we just focus on...
b. Until
now and so far both mean ‘from a certain point in the past up to the present
moment and possibly in the near future too’. Both are usually used with the
present perfect.
e.g.:So far / until
now, research into this area has been limited to X. In this paper, we
investigate Y.
This is the only acid
that has so far / until now been found to be effective in such scenarios.
c. Until
now is not normally used directly before a past participle. Note till, which
means the same as until, is considered too research manuscript.
e.g.: The research so
far undertaken has only focused on...
14.
During,
over, and throghout (time)
a. During
means at some point in the course of a period of time. This period can either
be in tha past or future.
e.g.:I work with him
during my Erasmus Project.
b. Over
often refers to a period of time that began in the past and is still true in
the present, over is thus normally used with the present perfect. However, over
can also be used for a future period.
e.g.:Over the last few
years, there has been increasing interest in...
c. Throughout means for the entire course of
period of time. This period can refer to the past, present or future.
e.g.:Plagues were
common throghout the Middle Age.
15.
From,
since, from (time)
The adverb of time you
use will normally help you to understand the correct tense to use.
a. For
indicates the duration from the past until the present. It is typically used
with plural words indicating time, e.g. days, months, years, decades. For
answer the question ‘how long has this situation been on going?’ In this sense,
for is used with the present perfect. Similar expression denoting a duration
from past to present are: over (e.g. over the last two decades), so far, until
now.
e.g.:We have been doing
this resarch for nine years.
b. If
for is used to indicate a period of time that is now finished, then it is used
with the simple past.
e.g.:I studied in
Boston for three years and then I moved to Beijing.
c. Since indicate the starting point of a current
situation. It is typically used with precise points in time, e.g. 2001, last
month, yesterday, since answer the question ‘when did this situation begin?’
e.g.:Since 2001 there
has been a dramatic increase in suicides.
d. From indicates a range of time, i.e. with a
start and finish. Because there is a finish time, from is not used with the
present perfect. But from can be used with most other tenses.
e.g.:I studied in
Boston from 2008 to 2011.
16.
In, now, currently, at the moment
a. In
is generally followed by a date (e.g. in June, in 2016) and is therefore not
used with the present perfect. In can be used with the present, future and the
past (e.g. the new term starts in October, I will see you in March, I last saw
her in 2011 ).
e.g.:I join this
research group in July
b. Now,
currently, at the moment indicate a time period that is ongoing, so they are
used with the present simple. On the other hand, ago, yesterday, last week (month,
year) indicate a time that is completely past so they must be used with the
simple past.
e.g.:This is currently
the world’s biggest problem
c. Adverbs
that indicate a connection between the past and present are generally found
with the present perfect (historically, traditionally, typically) but
traditionally and typically can also be used with the simple present and simple
past, depending on the context.
e.g.:Historically,
French has always been taught in English schools as the second language.
17.
In,
inside, within (location)
a. In
and inside often have a similar meaning in relation to a confined space.
e.g.:The money is kept
in the safe.
The hostage was kept
inside the same room for more than three years
b. Inside
is the opposite of outside, within is never used in this sense.
e.g.: The children were
only allowed to play inside the school, never outside.
c. Within
means internal to something that can be a real physical space (e.g. border), or
abstract (e.g. confines, framework, comprehension).
e.g.: Insufficient
attention has been given to the importance of relationships among children
within the school
d. In
is not usually found at the end of the sentence after a verb.
e. Inside
has a metaphorical meaning of ‘revelations’ regarding something, and is often
found in paper titles .
e.g.:Inside the mind of
a monkey.
Inside bureaucracy.
Inside the family.
18.
Of
and with (material, method, agreement)
a. Of
indicates a material out of which something is made.
e.g.:The royal family
were wearing jewels made of gold and silver.
Nitonol is an alloy of
nickel and titanium.
b. With
explains how something is created or what something is equipped with.
e.g.:These cars are
manufactured with armor plating and come equipped with bullet-proof windows.
c. With
indicates the presence or absence of a relationship, agreement or support. With
is used with the following verbs, nouns, and adjectives: accordance, acquaint, agree, ally, appointment, associate, coincide,
collaborate, comparable, compliance, comply, concur, connect, connection,
consistent, contact, contaminate, cooporate, cooperation, coordinate,
coordination, coupled, cover, deal, dispense, endow, entrust, equip,
experiment, help, incompatible, incongruous, infect, interact, interfere,
liaise, mix, paint, problem, provide, reinforce, synchronize, synchronous,
tally (indicates that these words can also be followed by to)
e.g.:The terrain was
covered with snow.
d. With
also mean ‘as a function of’, of cannot be used in such cases.
e.g.:The severity of
the illness varies with age.[2]
[1] George E. Wishon and
Julia M. Burks, Let’s Write English, page.
285
[2]A. Nallwork, English for Research: Usage, Style, and
Grammar, (New York: Springer Science+Business
Media, 2013), page. 115-130